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2 Kings 23

1

And the king sent, and they gathered unto him all the elders of Judah and of Jerusalem.

2

And the king went up into the house of the Lord, and all the men of Judah and all the inhabitants of Jerusalem with him, and the priests, and the prophets, and all the people, both small and great: and he read in their ears all the words of the book of the covenant which was found in the house of the Lord.

3

And the king stood by a pillar, and made a covenant before the Lord, to walk after the Lord, and to keep his commandments and his testimonies and his statutes with all their heart and all their soul, to perform the words of this covenant that were written in this book. And all the people stood to the covenant.

4

And the king commanded Hilkiah the high priest, and the priests of the second order, and the keepers of the door, to bring forth out of the temple of the Lord all the vessels that were made for Baal, and for the grove, and for all the host of heaven: and he burned them without Jerusalem in the fields of Kidron, and carried the ashes of them unto Beth–el.

5

And he put down the idolatrous priests, whom the kings of Judah had ordained to burn incense in the high places in the cities of Judah, and in the places round about Jerusalem; them also that burned incense unto Baal, to the sun, and to the moon, and to the planets, and to all the host of heaven.

6

And he brought out the grove from the house of the Lord, without Jerusalem, unto the brook Kidron, and burned it at the brook Kidron, and stamped it small to powder, and cast the powder thereof upon the graves of the children of the people.

1
7

And he brake down the houses of the sodomites, that were by the house of the Lord, where the women wove hangings for the grove.

1
8

And he brought all the priests out of the cities of Judah, and defiled the high places where the priests had burned incense, from Geba to Beer–sheba, and brake down the high places of the gates that were in the entering in of the gate of Joshua the governor of the city, which were on a man’s left hand at the gate of the city.

9

Nevertheless the priests of the high places came not up to the altar of the Lord in Jerusalem, but they did eat of the unleavened bread among their brethren.

10

And he defiled Topheth, which is in the valley of the children of Hinnom, that no man might make his son or his daughter to pass through the fire to Molech.

2
11

And he took away the horses that the kings of Judah had given to the sun, at the entering in of the house of the Lord, by the chamber of Nathan–melech the chamberlain, which was in the suburbs, and burned the chariots of the sun with fire.

1
12

And the altars that were on the top of the upper chamber of Ahaz, which the kings of Judah had made, and the altars which Manasseh had made in the two courts of the house of the Lord, did the king beat down, and brake them down from thence, and cast the dust of them into the brook Kidron.

13

And the high places that were before Jerusalem, which were on the right hand of the mount of corruption, which Solomon the king of Israel had builded for Ashtoreth the abomination of the Zidonians, and for Chemosh the abomination of the Moabites, and for Milcom the abomination of the children of Ammon, did the king defile.

14

And he brake in pieces the images, and cut down the groves, and filled their places with the bones of men.

15

Moreover the altar that was at Beth–el, and the high place which Jeroboam the son of Nebat, who made Israel to sin, had made, both that altar and the high place he brake down, and burned the high place, and stamped it small to powder, and burned the grove.

1
16

And as Josiah turned himself, he spied the sepulchres that were there in the mount, and sent, and took the bones out of the sepulchres, and burned them upon the altar, and polluted it, according to the word of the Lord which the man of God proclaimed, who proclaimed these words.

17

Then he said, What title is that that I see? And the men of the city told him, It is the sepulchre of the man of God, which came from Judah, and proclaimed these things that thou hast done against the altar of Beth–el.

18

And he said, Let him alone; let no man move his bones. So they let his bones alone, with the bones of the prophet that came out of Samaria.

19

And all the houses also of the high places that were in the cities of Samaria, which the kings of Israel had made to provoke the Lord to anger, Josiah took away, and did to them according to all the acts that he had done in Beth–el.

1
20

And he slew all the priests of the high places that were there upon the altars, and burned men’s bones upon them, and returned to Jerusalem.

21

And the king commanded all the people, saying, Keep the passover unto the Lord your God, as it is written in the book of this covenant.

1
22

Surely there was not holden such a passover from the days of the judges that judged Israel, nor in all the days of the kings of Israel, nor of the kings of Judah;

23

But in the eighteenth year of king Josiah, wherein this passover was holden to the Lord in Jerusalem.

24

Moreover the workers with familiar spirits, and the wizards, and the images, and the idols, and all the abominations that were spied in the land of Judah and in Jerusalem, did Josiah put away, that he might perform the words of the law which were written in the book that Hilkiah the priest found in the house of the Lord.

25

And like unto him was there no king before him, that turned to the Lord with all his heart, and with all his soul, and with all his might, according to all the law of Moses; neither after him arose there any like him.

1
26

Notwithstanding the Lord turned not from the fierceness of his great wrath, wherewith his anger was kindled against Judah, because of all the provocations that Manasseh had provoked him withal.

27

And the Lord said, I will remove Judah also out of my sight, as I have removed Israel, and will cast off this city Jerusalem which I have chosen, and the house of which I said, My name shall be there.

28

Now the rest of the acts of Josiah, and all that he did, are they not written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah?

29

In his days Pharaoh–nechoh king of Egypt went up against the king of Assyria to the river Euphrates: and king Josiah went against him; and he slew him at Megiddo, when he had seen him.

30

And his servants carried him in a chariot dead from Megiddo, and brought him to Jerusalem, and buried him in his own sepulchre. And the people of the land took Jehoahaz the son of Josiah, and anointed him, and made him king in his father’s stead.

31

Jehoahaz was twenty and three years old when he began to reign; and he reigned three months in Jerusalem. And his mother’s name was Hamutal, the daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah.

32

And he did that which was evil in the sight of the Lord, according to all that his fathers had done.

33

And Pharaoh–nechoh put him in bands at Riblah in the land of Hamath, that he might not reign in Jerusalem; and put the land to a tribute of an hundred talents of silver, and a talent of gold.

34

And Pharaoh–nechoh made Eliakim the son of Josiah king in the room of Josiah his father, and turned his name to Jehoiakim, and took Jehoahaz away: and he came to Egypt, and died there.

35

And Jehoiakim gave the silver and the gold to Pharaoh; but he taxed the land to give the money according to the commandment of Pharaoh: he exacted the silver and the gold of the people of the land, of every one according to his taxation, to give it unto Pharaoh–nechoh.

36

Jehoiakim was twenty and five years old when he began to reign; and he reigned eleven years in Jerusalem. And his mother’s name was Zebudah, the daughter of Pedaiah of Rumah.

37

And he did that which was evil in the sight of the Lord, according to all that his fathers had done.

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2 Kings 23

Josiah's comprehensive religious reformation following the discovery of the book of the law establishes the most thorough renewal of covenantal fidelity in the post-Solomonic history of the southern kingdom, yet the reformation is ultimately unable to prevent the trajectory toward exile. The chapter opens with Josiah's gathering of all the people and his public reading of the book of the covenant to them. Josiah's reformation is comprehensive and systematic: he removes all the vessels made for Baal, reduces the idolatrous priests, destroys the houses of the sacred prostitutes, breaks down the high places, removes the altars, defiles Topheth, removes the horses dedicated to the sun god, and smashes the bronze serpent. Josiah extends his reformation to the northern kingdom, traveling to Bethel and destroying the altar that Jeroboam had made. The chapter notes that Josiah celebrated the Passover with unprecedented magnificence. Yet the chapter concludes with the account of Josiah's death: he faces the Egyptian forces under Pharaoh Neco and is killed in battle at Megiddo. The theological significance lies in the presentation of Josiah's reformation as a comprehensive attempt to restore covenantal fidelity.

2 Kings 23:28

Now the rest of the acts of Josiah, and all that he did, are they not written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah? — the summary formula acknowledges Josiah's reign in the historical record while emphasizing that 2 Kings selects only theologically significant elements. His reformation, while comprehensive, could not alter the trajectory toward exile established by Manasseh's apostasy.

2 Kings 23:1

The king sent word and all the elders of Judah and Jerusalem were brought to him — Josiah summons the national leadership—elders of Judah and Jerusalem—indicating his intention to conduct a comprehensive religious reform involving institutional leadership. The assembling of the elders suggests a convocation for public covenant renewal and reform proclamation.

2 Kings 23:2

The king went up to the house of the LORD, and with him all the people of Judah, all the inhabitants of Jerusalem, the priests and the prophets, and all the people, both small and great; he read in their hearing all the words of the book of the covenant that had been found in the house of the LORD — Josiah conducts a public reading of the discovered Torah (called here 'the book of the covenant'). The comprehensive gathering—elders, people, priests, prophets, all inhabitants—indicates a national religious assembly. The public reading (וַיִּקְרָא בְאָזְנֵיהֶם, *way-yikra be-ozneihem*, 'he read in their hearing') makes the covenant text's demands known to all social ranks. The reading becomes the foundation for subsequent covenantal commitment.

2 Kings 23:3

The king stood by the pillar and made a covenant before the LORD, to follow the LORD, keeping his commandments, his decrees, and his statutes, with all his heart and all his soul, to perform the words of this covenant that were written in this book. All the people joined in the covenant — Josiah positions himself 'by the pillar' (עַל־הָעַמּוּד, *al-ha-amud*), a location of public visibility within the temple. His covenant renewal formula—'to follow the LORD, keeping his commandments, his decrees, and his statutes, with all his heart and all his soul'—echoes Deuteronomic language of complete devotion. The phrase 'All the people joined in the covenant' indicates popular ratification of the covenant commitment. The covenantal assembly represents a national recommitment to Yahwistic monotheism and Torah obedience.

2 Kings 23:4

The king commanded the high priest Hilkiah, the priests of the second order, and the guardians of the threshold, to bring out of the temple of the LORD all the vessels made for Baal, for Asherah, and for all the host of heaven; he burned them outside Jerusalem in the fields of the Kidron, and carried their ashes to Bethel — Josiah initiates systematic removal of apostate cultic objects from the temple. The phrase 'all the vessels made for Baal, for Asherah, and for all the host of heaven' indicates comprehensive desecration removal. Burning outside Jerusalem and dispersing ashes to Bethel (צֶא־בֵית־אֵל, *tzea Bethel*) ensures irreversible destruction of the idolatrous apparatus. The burning represents ritualistic desecration and purification.

2 Kings 23:5

He deposed the idolatrous priests whom the kings of Judah had ordained to make offerings in the high places and in the cities of Judah and around Jerusalem; those also who made offerings to Baal, to the sun, the moon, the constellations, and all the host of heaven — Josiah removes the priests who served in the apostate cultic system. The phrase 'idolatrous priests' (הַכֹּהֲנִים, *ha-kohanim*, literally 'the priests') refers to those 'ordained to make offerings in the high places.' These included priests dedicated to Baal and astral deities. The systematic removal of apostate clergy indicates comprehensive institutional reformation, not merely cultic object removal.

2 Kings 23:6

He brought out the image of Asherah from the house of the LORD, outside Jerusalem, to the Kidron Valley, burned it at the Kidron Valley, ground it to powder, and scattered the powder over the graves of the common people — the Asherah image—the object Manasseh had erected within the temple itself—is removed and desecrated. The detailed destruction formula—burned, ground to powder, scattered over graves—indicates ritualistic desecration intended to render the object forever impure and inefficacious. Scattering ashes over graves emphasizes contact with death impurity, making the Asherah ritually abhorrent.

2 Kings 23:7

He broke down the houses of the male temple prostitutes that were in the house of the LORD, where the women did weaving for Asherah — the 'male temple prostitutes' (קְדֵשִׁים, *qedeshim*, literally 'holy ones') were cultic functionaries serving in the fertility-goddess worship. The phrase 'where the women did weaving for Asherah' (וַיִּקְרְעוּ שָׁם בָּתִּים, *way-yikre'u sham battim*, 'tore down the houses there') indicates that Asherah worship involved formal institutional structures and labor. The destruction of these houses removes the institutional apparatus of Canaanite goddess worship.

2 Kings 23:8

He brought all the priests out of the towns of Judah, and defiled the high places where the priests had made offerings, from Geba to Beersheba; he also broke down the shrines of the gates that were at the entrance of the gate of Joshua the governor of the city, which were on the left side of the gate of the city — Josiah systematically eliminates every regional shrine and high place, from Geba (northern boundary) to Beersheba (southern boundary). The comprehensive geographic designation 'from Geba to Beersheba' (מִן־גִּבְעָה עַד־בְאֵר־שֶׁבַע, *min-givah ad Be'er Sheva*) indicates total territorial coverage. The destruction includes even gate shrines within Jerusalem itself. The detailed reference to 'Joshua the governor of the city' indicates that even institutional civic shrines are removed.

2 Kings 23:9

The priests of the high places, however, did not come up to the altar of the LORD in Jerusalem, but ate unleavened bread among their priests — the deposed high-place priests, while removed from their cultic functions, maintain some status and provisions. The phrase 'did not come up to the altar of the LORD in Jerusalem' indicates they were not integrated into the centralized temple priesthood. The allowance of 'unleavened bread among their priests' suggests continued priestly maintenance, though in a diminished status.

2 Kings 23:10

He defiled Topheth, which is in the Valley of the Son of Hinnom, so that no one would make a son or a daughter pass through fire as an offering to Molech — Josiah defiles Topheth (הַתֹּפֶת, *ha-tofet*), the site of child sacrifice to Molech in the Hinnom Valley. The defilement (וַיִּטְמֵא אֶת־הַתֹּפֶת, *way-yitmei et-ha-tofet*) involves rendering the site ritually impure, preventing future sacrifices. This action specifically prohibits child sacrifice, a practice that Manasseh had institutionalized. The destruction of Topheth represents the most significant removal of institutionalized evil practices.

2 Kings 23:11

He removed the horses that the kings of Judah had dedicated to the sun, at the entrance of the house of the LORD, by the chamber of the eunuch Nathan-melech, which was in the precincts; and he burned the chariots of the sun with fire — Josiah removes and burns horses and chariots dedicated to the sun god, which had been placed at the temple entrance. These objects served as cultic apparatus for astral worship. Their removal and burning indicates systematic elimination of even institutionalized solar worship apparatus.

2 Kings 23:12

The altars on the roof of the upper chamber of Ahaz the king of Judah, which the kings of Judah had made, and the altars that Manasseh had made in the two courts of the house of the LORD, he pulled down from there, and broke them in pieces, and threw the pieces into the Kidron Valley — Josiah systematically dismantles altars erected in various locations: on Ahaz's roof chamber, throughout Manasseh's temple altars. The specific reference to Manasseh's altars 'in the two courts' invokes the comprehensive desecration Manasseh had accomplished, now systematically reversed. Breaking the altars into pieces and scattering them in the Kidron Valley ensures permanent destruction.

2 Kings 23:13

The king also defiled the high places that were east of Jerusalem, south of the Mount of Corruption, which King Solomon had built for Ashtoreth the abomination of the Sidonians, for Chemosh the abomination of Moabites, and for Milcom the abomination of the Ammonites — Josiah systematically defiles the high places Solomon had erected for foreign deities: Ashtoreth (the Sidonian goddess), Chemosh (the Moabite deity), and Milcom (the Ammonite god). The reference to Solomon's apostasy introduces a historical irony: even David's successor erected high places for foreign gods, establishing a pattern of institutional apostasy that subsequent kings perpetuated. Josiah's destruction reverses even Solomonic apostasy.

2 Kings 23:14

He broke in pieces the pillars, and cut down the sacred poles, and filled their places with human bones — the destruction methodology continues: breaking pillars, cutting Asherah poles, and desecrating the sites by filling them with human bones, rendering the locations ceremonially impure. The defilement through contact with bones ensures that these sites can never again serve cultic functions.

2 Kings 23:15

Moreover, the altar at Bethel, the high place erected by Jeroboam son of Nebat, who made Israel to sin—he pulled down that altar and the high place; he burned the high place, crushing it to dust; and he burned the sacred pole — Josiah's reformation extends beyond Judean territory to Bethel, the primary site of Jeroboam I's schismatic apostasy. The systematic destruction—pulling down the altar, burning the high place, crushing it to dust, burning the Asherah—represents comprehensive desecration of the original source of northern apostasy. The phrase 'who made Israel to sin' invokes Jeroboam's foundational role in the northern kingdom's spiritual decline.

2 Kings 23:16

As Josiah turned, he spotted the tombs there on the mount; and he sent and took the bones out of the tombs, and burned them on the altar, thus defiling it, according to the word of the LORD that the prophet had proclaimed, when Jeroboam stood by the altar at the festival; but he turned and looked up at the grave of the man of God who had proclaimed these things — Josiah's desecration of Bethel's altar includes burning bones from the tombs located there, fulfilling a prophecy made by a man of God during Jeroboam's reign (1 Kings 13:2). The specific fulfillment of three-hundred-year-old prophecy indicates that the word of the LORD, spoken through prophets, remains eternally operative. Josiah's observation of 'the grave of the man of God' suggests reverence for the ancient prophet whose word is now being fulfilled.

2 Kings 23:17

Then he said, 'What is that monument that I see?' The people of the city told him, 'It is the grave of the man of God who came from Judah and predicted these things that you have done against the altar at Bethel' — the populace identifies the tomb as belonging to the man of God (the prophet of 1 Kings 13) whose word is being fulfilled. The connection between ancient prophecy and current fulfillment emphasizes the timeless authority of the prophetic word.

2 Kings 23:18

He said, 'Let him rest; let no one disturb his bones.' So they left his bones undisturbed, along with the bones of the prophet who had come from Israel — Josiah orders that the prophet's tomb remain undisturbed, showing reverence for the ancient man of God whose prophecy is being fulfilled. The protection of the prophet's bones contrasts with the desecration of Bethel's altar and other religious sites. This distinction—reverence for the true prophet while desecrating false altars—indicates Josiah's theological discernment.

2 Kings 23:19

Josiah also removed all the shrines of the high places that were in the towns of Israel, which kings of Israel had made, provoking the LORD to anger; he did to them just as he had done to the altar at Bethel — Josiah's reformation extends into northern territory (the towns of Israel), eliminating all high-place shrines established by northern kings. This cross-border reformation indicates Josiah's vision of national religious unity and restoration. The phrase 'which kings of Israel had made, provoking the LORD to anger' echoes the theological evaluation of northern apostasy established in the fall-of-Samaria narrative.

2 Kings 23:20

He slaughtered on the altars all the priests of the high places who were there, and burned human bones on them. Then he returned to Jerusalem — Josiah executes the priests of the high places, performing ritual sacrifice of the apostate clergy as an act of religious purification. The burning of human bones on the altars represents final desecration. The systematic violence against the apostate priesthood indicates the comprehensive nature of Josiah's religious revolution.

2 Kings 23:21

The king commanded all the people, saying, 'Keep the passover to the LORD your God as prescribed in this book of the covenant' — Josiah commands the celebration of Passover (הַפְּסַח, *ha-Pesach*) according to the discovered law. Passover, the foundational covenant festival commemorating the Exodus redemption, becomes a focus of Josiah's reformation. The restoration of Passover practice indicates return to covenantal fundamentals.

2 Kings 23:22

No such passover had been kept since the days of the judges who judged Israel, nor during all the days of the kings of Israel and the days of the kings of Judah; — the phrase 'No such passover had been kept' indicates that Passover observance had been systematically neglected for centuries—since the judges' era. The failure to observe Passover represents religious apostasy at the national institutional level. Josiah's restoration of Passover observance signifies the recovery of covenantal practice.

2 Kings 23:23

but in the eighteenth year of King Josiah, this passover was kept to the LORD in Jerusalem — Josiah's Passover restoration occurs in his eighteenth regnal year (synchronizing with the Torah discovery and temple renovation). The phrase 'was kept to the LORD in Jerusalem' emphasizes its centralized, authentic character: the Passover is performed according to the discovered law, with proper centralization at Jerusalem.

2 Kings 23:24

Moreover Josiah put away the mediums and wizards, and the teraphim and the idols, and all the abominations that were seen in the land of Judah and in Jerusalem, so that he established the covenant that was written in the book that the high priest Hilkiah had found in the house of the LORD — Josiah systematically removes prohibited magical practitioners (mediums, wizards) and idols, completing the reformation. The phrase 'all the abominations that were seen in the land of Judah and in Jerusalem' indicates comprehensive purification. The note that 'he established the covenant that was written in the book' attributes the reformation's purpose to covenant fulfillment based on the discovered Torah.

2 Kings 23:25

Before him there was no king like him, who turned to the LORD with all his heart, all his soul, and all his might, according to all the law of Moses; nor did any that came after him compare with him — the theological assessment ranks Josiah alongside Hezekiah as the apex of Judean kingship. The phrase 'who turned to the LORD with all his heart, all his soul, and all his might' echoes the Shema (Deuteronomy 6:5), indicating complete covenantal devotion. The claim that 'none that came after him compare with him' indicates that Josiah represents the final great king before exile. His comprehensive reform is unrepeatable.

2 Kings 23:26

Still, the LORD did not turn from the fierceness of his great wrath, by which his anger was kindled against Judah, because of all the provocations with which Manasseh had provoked him — despite Josiah's comprehensive reform, Huldah's oracle (22:16-17) is fulfilled: divine wrath remains kindled against Judah. The phrase 'because of all the provocations with which Manasseh had provoked him' indicates that Manasseh's apostasy established such extensive covenant violation that even Josiah's reform cannot reverse the judgment. The exile becomes inevitable despite the reformer's efforts.

2 Kings 23:27

The LORD said, 'I will remove Judah also out of my sight, as I have removed Israel; and I will reject this city that I have chosen, Jerusalem, and the house of which I said, My name shall be there' — the oracle (attributed to the LORD, likely through prophetic tradition) announces the rejection of Jerusalem and the temple. The phrase 'I will remove Judah also out of my sight, as I have removed Israel' parallels Judah's coming exile to Israel's. The rejection of Jerusalem—'the city that I have chosen'—and the temple—'the house of which I said, My name shall be there'—represents the most severe theological loss: the place of divine election becomes a place of rejection. Covenant reversal is complete.

2 Kings 23:29

In his days Pharaoh Neco of Egypt went up to the king of Assyria to the river Euphrates. King Josiah went to meet him; and Pharaoh Neco killed him at Megiddo, when he saw him — Josiah's death occurs at Megiddo while attempting to block Pharaoh Neco's march northward toward Assyria. The phrase 'Pharaoh Neco killed him at Megiddo' indicates that despite Josiah's military initiative, he was defeated and slain. The detail that Neco killed Josiah 'when he saw him' suggests direct confrontation. Josiah's death contradicts Huldah's promise that he would be gathered to his grave in peace (22:20), suggesting that the promise referred to exemption from witnessing exile, not exemption from violent death.

2 Kings 23:30

His servants carried him dead from Megiddo, and brought him to Jerusalem, and buried him in his own tomb. The people of the land took Jehoahaz son of Josiah and anointed him, and made him king in place of his father — Josiah's body is returned to Jerusalem for royal burial, yet his death marks the end of the reforming era. His son Jehoahaz is crowned by 'the people of the land' (עַם־הָאָרֶץ, *am ha-aretz*), continuing the pattern of popular succession determination. Yet Jehoahaz will prove unable to maintain Josiah's religious achievements.

2 Kings 23:31

Jehoahaz was twenty-three years old when he became king; he reigned three months in Jerusalem. His mother's name was Hamutal daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah — Jehoahaz's three-month reign indicates ephemeral power. His accession at twenty-three years suggests a young adult assuming throne after his father's battlefield death. The brief tenure suggests that regional powers (Egypt or Babylon) quickly removed him from power.

2 Kings 23:32

He did what was evil in the sight of the LORD, just as his ancestors had done — Jehoahaz perpetuates the apostasy formula, returning to the pre-Josiah pattern of wickedness. His three-month reign proves insufficient for reform, and his evil-doing parallels ancestral apostasy rather than following his reformer father's example.

2 Kings 23:33

Pharaoh Neco confined him at Riblah in the land of Hamath, so that he might not reign in Jerusalem, and imposed on the land a tribute of one hundred talents of silver and a talent of gold — Pharaoh Neco deposes Jehoahaz, imposing massive tribute. The removal of Josiah's son indicates Egyptian hegemony over Judea. Jehoahaz's confinement and replacement initiate the period of foreign dominance and tributary vassalage.

2 Kings 23:34

Pharaoh Neco made Eliakim son of Josiah king in place of Jehoahaz his brother, and changed his name to Jehoiakim. But he took Jehoahaz away; and he came to Egypt, and died there — Neco installs Eliakim (renamed Jehoiakim) as a more compliant vassal. The name change indicates Egyptian assertion of control: even the king's identity becomes subject to imperial authority. Jehoahaz's deportation to Egypt and death indicate the end of his line's power.

2 Kings 23:35

Jehoiakim gave the silver and the gold to Pharaoh, but he taxed the land in order to meet Pharaoh's tribute. He exacted the silver and the gold from the people of the land, according to their assessment, to give it to Pharaoh Neco — Jehoiakim, as Egyptian vassal, levies heavy taxation on the populace to meet foreign tribute demands. This pattern—king as tax-collector for foreign powers—characterizes the final period before exile.

2 Kings 23:36

Jehoiakim was twenty-five years old when he began to reign; he reigned eleven years in Jerusalem. His mother's name was Zebidah daughter of Pedaiah of Rumah — Jehoiakim reigns eleven years as Egyptian vassal, longer than his brother Jehoahaz but in fundamental subjugation to foreign power.

2 Kings 23:37

He did what was evil in the sight of the LORD, just as his ancestors had done — Jehoiakim continues the apostasy pattern, indicating that even Josiah's son abandons the reforming heritage and returns to pre-reform wickedness. The three sons of Josiah—Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, and later Zedekiah—each perpetuate apostasy rather than sustaining their father's reformation.